A LOOK AT GEORGIAN SPIRITS

| Chacha, Wine Brandy, Fruit Distillates and Their Food Pairings |

Tazo Tamazashvili | Best Sommelier of Georgia | Wine Expert

Chacha โ€“ the Perfect Aperitif and Digestif

Late autumn and winter are the perfect seasons for strong spirits. And when it comes to drinks of this kind, it only feels right to start with chacha (the Georgian grape pomace brandy). To me, Georgian chacha holds as much importance as Georgian wine itself.

Georgian chacha is made from fermented pomace. The pomace comes from either pressed or unpressed grapes and is then distilled using either steam or by adding a little water. Wine lees can also be added to the grape pomace. The fermented wash extracted from the pomace can then be distilled once or twice. Overall, the alcohol content of chacha should not be less than 40%.

Chacha is a spirit protected by geographical indication, registered in 2011. The grapes used to make it must come from vineyards planted in Georgiaโ€™s recognized viticultural zones and subzones: Kakheti, Kartli, Meskheti, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, Guria, Samegrelo, Abkhazia, and Ajara. While the pressing, ageing, and bottling of chacha can take place outside the zone where the grapes were grown, it is essential that the entire process occurs within the territory of Georgia. Chacha ranges from clear to dark straw in colour. It takes on a darker straw hue when aged in wooden vessels or left in contact with sapwood for a period of time.

Chacha is made from the grape skins, stems, seeds, and the remaining pulp left after pressing, which in the past was used as fertiliser in Georgian vineyards. Over time, it began to be used for making spirits, a tradition that probably arrived in Georgia from the Middle East. In Georgia, almost every household that makes wine has a copper pot still for distilling chacha. At the end of winter, on cold, crisp days, itโ€™s time to begin the distillation. Family members and friends gather in the yard around the pot still to participate in the process.

Warm, uncut chacha, its alcohol still raw, flows from the pot still, and tasting it at this stage has become a cherished tradition. Nearby, a family-style Georgian supra (feast) is laid out, including grilled mtsvadi (traditional Georgian barbecue), cheese, shotis puri (traditional Georgian bread), and pickles. Traditional Georgian pickles, in particular, are the perfect companion to chacha.

If we look at examples from other countries, such as Greek ouzo or Turkish raki, our chacha is different, as it is made without any flavourings. This is a Georgian tradition, preserved to this day. The only addition to chacha-making in the 19th and 20th centuries has been ageing it in oak barrels. In Georgia, both large-scale and small producers continue to make this spirit.

According to Georgian tradition, chacha marks both the beginning and the end of a Georgian supra – serving both as an aperitif and digestif.

The noble varietal aromas of a grape transfer not only into wine but also into chacha. Thatโ€™s why I would advise producers to consider making single-variety chacha. It gives the spirit greater charm and significance, both locally and on international markets. It also piques consumer interest, as the taste, aromas, and smoothness of a chacha made from a single grape variety are particularly appealing.

The Character of Chacha by Region

Just like wine, Georgian chacha can also be considered by region. In Kakheti, it has a strong, intense character with bold flavours and aromas. Chacha made from Imereti grape varieties, on the other hand, has the same lightness that is typical of the wines from that region. In Guria and Samegrelo, chacha tends to be more aromatic, thanks to the addition of fruit. Itโ€™s important to note that these are not fruit distillates, which are a separate category. In these regions, local fruits are added directly to the chacha to enhance its flavours. Finally, there is the beautiful region of Racha, known for its Aleksandrouli and Mujuretuli grapes, from which excellent chacha is produced.

Chacha Aged in Oak Barrels

This type of chacha has a golden colour and distinctive aromas, with notes of dried fruit, nuts, chocolate, and vanilla. It appeals more to European consumers, as it is reminiscent of high-proof grape-based spirits that they are already familiar with, such as brandy and cognac, although unlike those spirits, we Georgians do not add any wine to chacha.

Fruit and Herbal Distillates

Georgia is home to a great variety of fruits and plants, which is reflected in its distillate culture. For example, mulberry distillate is particularly popular in Western Georgia, in regions such as Guria, Ajara, and Samegrelo. To make it, the mulberries are first fermented and then distilled. The resulting spirit is distinguished by light, pleasant notes of fruit, honey, and cocoa.There is a wide variety of apple distillates in Georgia, common in Kartli, Racha, and Imereti, characterised by pleasant, natural flavours with notes of honey and spices. These distillates are sure to intrigue European consumers. It is also worth noting, that in Europe, the only widely known apple distillate is Calvados, produced in the Normandy region of France.

It is also important to mention the plant-based Georgian distillates, made from mint, lemon balm, strawberry leaves, and tarragon, which are particularly intriguing. There is also the Svanetian distillate made from ghehi (a local plant). One of my favourite drinks in Georgia is the widely enjoyed honey distillate (brandy), which has low alcohol content and the wonderful aromas of honey and wildflowers. It is followed by grain distillates, with the Samtskhe-Javakheti region being particularly noteworthy in this regard.

Pairing High-Proof Spirits with Food

When it comes to food pairings, chacha is an exceptionally approachable spirit. According to Georgian tradition, it marks both the beginning and the end of a supra, serving as both aperitif and digestif (itโ€™s recommended to take a small bite before drinking). It pairs particularly well with rich, high-fat dishes, providing a balanced effect alongside them.

The combination of chacha and khinkali is a classic of the Georgian table, but it also pairs beautifully with meat dishes – Chashushuli, Chakapuli, and Mtsvadi.

Pairing Fruit and Herbal Distillates with Food

Cocktails made from distilled fruit brandies are becoming increasingly popular. These drinks pair exceptionally well with seafood dishes. Light cocktails made from distillates of apple, mulberry, or feijoa – one of Georgiaโ€™s finest fruits, grown in the countryโ€™s subtropical regions, such as Abkhazia, Samegrelo, Guria, and Ajara – have a crisp, mineral, and long-lasting aroma, making them a particularly good match for baked Black Sea fish.

The Perfect Finish

Brandy, this delicate spirit, is most often enjoyed as a digestif, though it is equally worthy of mention when paired with desserts, chocolate, and nuts. When it comes to Georgian-produced brandy, one of its best pairings is the traditional Georgian sweet churchkhela.


แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ•แƒ
แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ, แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ

แƒ—แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ | แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ”, แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ – แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒŸแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜

แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฃแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒช แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒขแƒ˜แƒžแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ” แƒ•แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ—, แƒแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒ— แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ.

แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒงแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒฃแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒœแƒ”แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฃแƒฌแƒœแƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ  แƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฅแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒงแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“. แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒจแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒช. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”, แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒแƒ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒขแƒ แƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒข-แƒฌแƒงแƒแƒšแƒฎแƒกแƒœแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒ“แƒแƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ”แƒš แƒแƒœ แƒแƒ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“. แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ แƒฏแƒแƒ›แƒจแƒ˜, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒ แƒขแƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒชแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ  แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒก 40%-แƒ–แƒ” แƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜.

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒคแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฆแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ•แƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช 2011 แƒฌแƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ แƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒงแƒแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ: แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ”แƒกแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒญแƒ, แƒšแƒ”แƒฉแƒฎแƒฃแƒ›แƒ˜, แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ, แƒแƒคแƒฎแƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒญแƒแƒ แƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ, แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฉแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฎแƒ›แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒ”แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒ”แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ’แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜.

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒญแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒฃแƒฅ แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ. แƒ›แƒฃแƒฅ แƒฉแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒก แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒฃแƒ แƒญแƒ”แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒœ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก.

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜, แƒฌแƒ˜แƒžแƒฌแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒœแƒ”แƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ แƒแƒกแƒแƒช แƒซแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฃแƒฅแƒแƒ“ แƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ“แƒœแƒ”แƒœ. แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ—แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒแƒ˜แƒฌแƒงแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒกแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒ.

แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ—แƒฅแƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒก แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒžแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒซแƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒฃแƒ แƒญแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช (แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜) แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ—. แƒงแƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ–แƒแƒ›แƒ—แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฌแƒฃแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒก, แƒกแƒฃแƒกแƒฎแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ. แƒ”แƒ–แƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒ• แƒ˜แƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœ แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ™แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒ• แƒ“แƒแƒฃแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฅแƒแƒœแƒ”, แƒ’แƒแƒฃแƒ–แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ™แƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ’แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒชแƒ”แƒกแƒ˜แƒช แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ˜แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒแƒฏแƒแƒฎแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ – แƒ›แƒฌแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜, แƒจแƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒ›แƒฌแƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒซแƒ”แƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฌแƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ.

แƒ—แƒฃ แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒฅแƒ•แƒ”แƒงแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒ—, แƒ›แƒแƒ— แƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒฃแƒš แƒฃแƒ–แƒแƒก, แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ แƒฅแƒฃแƒš แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ–แƒแƒขแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒจแƒ” แƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ” แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒฉแƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒช XIX-XX แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒ”แƒฅแƒœแƒแƒšแƒแƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒฃแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ—. แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ›แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ.

แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ – แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒŸแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒช.

แƒแƒ›แƒ แƒ—แƒฃ แƒ˜แƒ› แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒ แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ“ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ›แƒ˜แƒขแƒแƒ› แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒฅแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ›แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ›แƒ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ˜แƒคแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒแƒ› แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒ›แƒ”แƒข แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ‘แƒšแƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒแƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒซแƒ”แƒœแƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒกแƒแƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒจแƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ–แƒ”. แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ–แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒก แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ“แƒแƒœแƒแƒช, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ™แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒ˜แƒ แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒก แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒฆแƒ˜แƒฅแƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒก.

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—

แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒกแƒแƒ“, แƒจแƒ”แƒ’แƒ•แƒ˜แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒš แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ— แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—: แƒ™แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ – แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ”แƒ แƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒœแƒกแƒ˜แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก, แƒ’แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒกแƒ˜แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒก แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒแƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒš แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒก แƒ•แƒฎแƒ•แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ (แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ•, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ”แƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒ•แƒ— แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒชแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒ” แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒ. แƒแƒ› แƒ แƒ”แƒ’แƒ˜แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜, แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ” แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒœ แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ” แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒก). แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒก, แƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ›แƒแƒ–แƒ”แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ แƒแƒญแƒ, แƒ—แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ”แƒฅแƒกแƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฃแƒฏแƒฃแƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœแƒแƒช แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒ“แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ.

แƒ›แƒฃแƒฎแƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒแƒกแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ

แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒฅแƒ แƒแƒกแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก – แƒ˜แƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒœแƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฉแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒจแƒแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒขแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜. แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒแƒกแƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒแƒฎแƒšแƒแƒกแƒแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ— แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒก แƒ˜แƒก, แƒฃแƒ™แƒ•แƒ” แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒœแƒแƒชแƒœแƒแƒ‘, แƒงแƒฃแƒ แƒซแƒœแƒ˜แƒกแƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ – แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜, แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒ˜ – แƒแƒ˜แƒ’แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒก. แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒ” แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒšแƒก แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒ•แƒฃแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒขแƒแƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ™แƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒแƒ™แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒ›แƒแƒกแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒแƒก แƒแƒ  แƒ•แƒ˜แƒงแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—.
แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜

แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก, แƒ แƒแƒช แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ˜แƒกแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒšแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒแƒจแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒจแƒ˜แƒ (แƒ’แƒฃแƒ แƒ˜แƒ, แƒแƒญแƒแƒ แƒ, แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ) แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜. แƒ›แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ—แƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒฏแƒ”แƒ  แƒ“แƒแƒ“แƒฃแƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ, แƒจแƒ”แƒ›แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’ แƒ™แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒจแƒ”แƒ“แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ˜แƒ แƒฉแƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ—แƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒแƒ™แƒแƒแƒก แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—. แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒก แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ˜ แƒ›แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒแƒšแƒคแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ (แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒšแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒญแƒแƒจแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒ›แƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒ—แƒจแƒ˜), แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒช แƒ—แƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒ“แƒ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒœแƒ, แƒ‘แƒฃแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ”แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒฎแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒแƒ—แƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒ”แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒฎแƒ›แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ—แƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ. แƒแƒฅแƒ•แƒ” แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ, แƒ แƒแƒ› แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒ”แƒ•แƒ แƒแƒžแƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒแƒ“ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜, แƒกแƒแƒคแƒ แƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒชแƒ˜แƒแƒจแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒšแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ.

แƒแƒฃแƒชแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒšแƒแƒ“ แƒฃแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒกแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒš แƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒแƒ–แƒ” – แƒžแƒ˜แƒขแƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒ’แƒฃแƒšแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ–แƒ”, แƒŸแƒแƒšแƒแƒก แƒคแƒแƒ—แƒแƒšแƒ–แƒ”, แƒขแƒแƒ แƒฎแƒฃแƒœแƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ•แƒ”, แƒกแƒ•แƒแƒœแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒช แƒฆแƒ”แƒฐแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ (แƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”) แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ.

แƒฉแƒ”แƒ›แƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒจแƒ˜ แƒคแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒแƒ“ แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒ แƒชแƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ—แƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ (แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜) – แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ—แƒแƒคแƒšแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ“แƒ•แƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒงแƒ•แƒแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒแƒชแƒแƒ แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ แƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒกแƒแƒช แƒ›แƒแƒฐแƒงแƒ•แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ (แƒแƒ› แƒ›แƒฎแƒ แƒ˜แƒ• แƒ’แƒแƒœแƒกแƒแƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ— แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒกแƒแƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ”-แƒฏแƒแƒ•แƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒ).

แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒแƒšแƒ™แƒแƒฐแƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ

แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒฃแƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒ—, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒซแƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ‘แƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ. แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒแƒฆแƒ•แƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒ”, แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฎแƒ”แƒ“แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ แƒแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒฌแƒงแƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜, แƒ˜แƒกแƒ” แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ – แƒแƒžแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒช แƒ“แƒ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒŸแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒช. (แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒแƒ›แƒ“แƒ”, แƒกแƒแƒกแƒฃแƒ แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ, แƒ›แƒชแƒ˜แƒ แƒ” แƒฎแƒ”แƒ›แƒกแƒ˜แƒก แƒ›แƒ˜แƒฆแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ). แƒ˜แƒก แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ”แƒฎแƒแƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒฆแƒแƒšแƒชแƒฎแƒ˜แƒ›แƒ˜แƒแƒœ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ—แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒ•แƒแƒซแƒšแƒ”แƒ•แƒก แƒ“แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒšแƒแƒœแƒกแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ”แƒคแƒ”แƒฅแƒขแƒก.

แƒญแƒแƒญแƒ˜แƒกแƒ แƒ“แƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒœแƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒ™แƒšแƒแƒกแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒ, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ”แƒก แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒแƒ“ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ แƒฎแƒแƒ แƒชแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒกแƒฎแƒ•แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒฉแƒแƒจแƒฃแƒจแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒฉแƒแƒฅแƒแƒคแƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒฌแƒ•แƒแƒ“แƒ—แƒแƒœ.

แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ“แƒ แƒ›แƒชแƒ”แƒœแƒแƒ แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒ แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜

แƒ“แƒฆแƒ”แƒก, แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒจแƒ”แƒฅแƒ›แƒœแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒกแƒฃแƒš แƒฃแƒคแƒ แƒ แƒžแƒแƒžแƒฃแƒšแƒแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฎแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ. แƒแƒกแƒ”แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜ แƒจแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒœแƒ˜แƒจแƒœแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ’แƒแƒšแƒ˜แƒ—แƒแƒ“, แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒฃแƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒš แƒ™แƒ”แƒ แƒซแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ•แƒแƒจแƒšแƒ˜แƒก, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ—แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒœแƒ“แƒแƒช แƒกแƒแƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒ•แƒ”แƒšแƒแƒก แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒขแƒ แƒแƒžแƒ˜แƒ™แƒฃแƒš แƒ–แƒแƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒจแƒ˜ แƒ’แƒแƒจแƒ”แƒœแƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฉแƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒก – แƒคแƒ”แƒ˜แƒฎแƒแƒแƒก แƒ“แƒ˜แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒšแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒแƒ›แƒ–แƒแƒ“แƒ”แƒ‘แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒ›แƒกแƒฃแƒ‘แƒฃแƒฅแƒ˜ แƒ™แƒแƒฅแƒขแƒ”แƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ’แƒ แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒ แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜, แƒฎแƒแƒœแƒ’แƒ แƒซแƒšแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜ แƒแƒ แƒแƒ›แƒแƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒ—, แƒ™แƒแƒ แƒ’แƒ˜ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜แƒ แƒจแƒแƒ•แƒ˜ แƒ–แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒก แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒชแƒฎแƒ•แƒแƒ  แƒ—แƒ”แƒ•แƒ–แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ.

แƒ˜แƒ“แƒ”แƒแƒšแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒ“แƒแƒกแƒแƒกแƒ แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜

แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒก, แƒแƒ› แƒ“แƒ”แƒšแƒ˜แƒ™แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ  แƒกแƒแƒกแƒ›แƒ”แƒšแƒก, แƒฃแƒ›แƒ”แƒขแƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ“ แƒ“แƒ˜แƒฏแƒ”แƒกแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒแƒ“ แƒ›แƒ˜แƒ•แƒ˜แƒ แƒ—แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ—, แƒ—แƒฃแƒ›แƒชแƒ แƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒ แƒแƒœแƒแƒ™แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘ แƒกแƒแƒ˜แƒœแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒ”แƒกแƒแƒ แƒ“แƒ”แƒกแƒ”แƒ แƒขแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ—แƒแƒœ, แƒจแƒแƒ™แƒแƒšแƒแƒ“แƒ—แƒแƒœ แƒ“แƒ แƒ—แƒฎแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ—แƒแƒœ. แƒ แƒแƒชแƒ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฌแƒแƒ แƒ›แƒแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ‘แƒ แƒ”แƒœแƒ“แƒ˜แƒ–แƒ” แƒ•แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ‘แƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒ—, แƒ›แƒ˜แƒกแƒ˜ แƒ”แƒ แƒ—-แƒ”แƒ แƒ—แƒ˜ แƒกแƒแƒฃแƒ™แƒ”แƒ—แƒ”แƒกแƒ แƒฌแƒงแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ แƒขแƒ แƒแƒ“แƒ˜แƒชแƒ˜แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒฅแƒแƒ แƒ—แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒœแƒฃแƒ’แƒ‘แƒแƒ แƒ˜ – แƒฉแƒฃแƒ แƒฉแƒฎแƒ”แƒšแƒแƒ.

Total
0
Shares
Prev
แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ-แƒ›แƒ”แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ PIWI แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ

แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก แƒ–แƒ”แƒ’แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ”แƒœแƒ แƒ›แƒ”แƒ•แƒ”แƒœแƒแƒฎแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒ-แƒ›แƒ”แƒฆแƒ•แƒ˜แƒœแƒ”แƒแƒ‘แƒแƒ–แƒ” แƒ“แƒ PIWI แƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜, แƒ แƒแƒ’แƒแƒ แƒช แƒ›แƒแƒ›แƒแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒก แƒแƒšแƒขแƒ”แƒ แƒœแƒแƒขแƒ˜แƒ•แƒ

แƒœแƒแƒœแƒ แƒฏแƒแƒฏแƒ˜แƒจแƒ•แƒ˜แƒšแƒ˜ | IWI Sommelier แƒ™แƒšแƒ˜แƒ›แƒแƒขแƒฃแƒ แƒ˜ แƒชแƒ•แƒšแƒ˜แƒšแƒ”แƒ‘แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒกแƒ’แƒแƒœ แƒ’แƒแƒ›แƒแƒฌแƒ•แƒ”แƒฃแƒšแƒ˜ แƒžแƒ แƒแƒ‘แƒšแƒ”แƒ›แƒ”แƒ‘แƒ˜แƒก

Next
PIWI VARIETIES

PIWI VARIETIES

The Impact of Climate Change on Viticulture and Winemaking and PIWI Varieties as

You May Also Like
Total
0
Share
Privacy Overview

This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.